Measuring the Creep of Lead

This laboratory explores the phenomenon of creep. Creep is a slow continuous deformation within a material in response to increasing time, a constant applied stress and an elevated temperature. Here in this laboratory lead is chosen as the test metal as it is shown to have poor resistance to creep and also has a relatively low melting temperature. Applications Engineers are interested in the creep properties and stability of materials when designing specific parts and assemblies. Creep machines such as the one used in the laboratory are used by Engineers to determine these material properties. Creep causes many problems to the Engineer in design. They need to determine that the materials they use will stay within the required creep limits for the lifetime of the component. Creep is particularly important in the design components that need to withstand high temperatures. Creep will occur in metals at a faster rate as the temperature increases. These design considerations fall into four different applications:[1] Displacement limited applications are where dimensions must be precise with small clearances and little error. The small clearances must be maintained at high temperatures. An example of this type of application is in the turbine rotors of jet engines. Rupture limited applications are where precise dimensions are not particularly essential. However it is essential that fracture cannot occur to the material. An example of this is the need for high pressure steam tubes and pipes to withstand any break in their structure. Stress relaxation limited applications are needed where the initial tension in component relaxes with time. An example of where this application occurs is in the pretensioning of cables on bridges or in the pretensioning of bolts. Buckling limited applications of creep are needed in slender columns or panels which carry compressive loads. An example of this type of application would be in a structural steelwork that is exposed to fire. Objectives The objective is to witness the creep properties in lead. To achieve this creep tests are performed on lead specimens. Three creep tests are carried out using three different lead specimens. The load is varied in each of the three tests and observations are made on the results. Theory Creep Creep is a time dependent deformation that occurs under a constant applied load and temperature. The rate of creep is influenced by temperature and creep generally occurs at a high temperature. Creep then is a function of stress, time and temperature. The lowest temperature at which creep can occur in a given material is generally , where Tm is the melting temperature of the material in degrees Kelvin. Total engineering creep strain can be expressed by the following formula: Where ÃŽ µ is the theoretical stress, is the change in the materials length and is the materials original length. The strain rate describes the rate of change in the strain of a material with respect to time. Where is the strain rate; is the change in strain and is the change in time. The rate of deformation caused by creep is called the creep rate. The creep rate for a material with a constant stress and constant temperature can be calculated using the following formula: Steady State Creep Rate: Where Q is the activation energy; n is the stress exponent; A is a material constant; R it the universal gas constant and T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin. The activation energy Q can be determined experimentally, by plotting the natural log of creep rate against the reciprocal of temperature. The gradient of the subsequent slope is equal to. Fig. 1 – Natural log of strain rate against reciprocal of temperature. [2] For this experiment we are using a constant temperature for the three specimens. The Arrhenius equation can then be simplified to give a power law relationship: Where A is a constant that depends on the given material. Rearranging this equation the material constant A can be found: The value of A can also be found by plotting the natural log of the strain rates against the natural log of the applied stress values. Here the value of A is equal to the exponential of the intercept of the line created by this plot. The stress exponent n can be determined by plotting the natural log of the strain rate against the natural log of the applied stress. The gradient of this slope is equal to the stress exponent n. Fig. 2 – Natural log of strain rate against natural of applied stress [2] The stress component n is defined by the following equation: Stages of Creep Primary creep occurs at the initial stages of creep. In this stage the strain rate is relatively higher and then begins to gradually decrease. Secondary creep is also called the steady state creep stage. This occurs after the primary creep stage and the creep rate changes to a constant. In this stage there is no increase or decrease in the creep rate. Tertiary creep is the last stage of creep. The creep rate moves from the steady state of the secondary stage to a continuous increase. The creep rate progressively increases until the material reaches its breaking point and it ruptures. Materials Fig. 3 – Analogue Creep Testing Machine – Not used in experiment [3] * Lever-arm creep testing machine. * Various â€Å"dead-weight† masses. For this experiment there were 1.0, 1.2 and 1.4 kg masses. * Various lead creep specimens compatible with the creep testing machine. Similar to that in Fig. 4. * Linear Variable Displacement Transducer in contact with the lever. * Analogue to Digital convertor in the form of a PCI card. * Data logging computer program. * Computer. Because the creep testing machine uses a lever similar to that in Fig. 3, a mechanical advantage takes place. This needs to be taken into consideration when analysing the results. The lever in the creep testing machine in the experiment has an 8:1 mechanical advantage. The machine pictured in Fig. 3 uses an analogue dial for recording displacement. The creep testing machine used in this experiment uses an LVDT transducer. This is in contact with the lever and sends displacement data to the A/D card in the form of electrical signals. Fig. 4 – Lead Creep Specimen [4] Method * The three lead specimens are measured for their length and cross sectional area. For the first of the three tests, a 1kg load level is selected. * The top end of the first specimen is installed in the top grip of the creep testing machine. * The bottom end of the specimen is installed in the lower grip of the creep testing machine. * The creep testing machine is zeroed. In this experiment zeroing wasn’t possible so the recorded displacement results were offset by 6.039. This was remedied by adding 6.039 to all recorded displacements. * The data logger program is started while choosing an appropriate file name. For this experiment ‘data1.txt’ was chosen for the first specimen. * The load is now applied to the specimen in the creep machine. The data logger will record the elapsing time and the deformation in the specimen. * The specimen will eventually rupture due to the increasing creep and at this stage pressing stop in the program will end the logging. * For the second specimen a load of 1.2kg is selected. A different filename is chosen in the data logger program. For this experiment ‘data2.txt’ was chosen for the second specimen. * The process is repeated until the specimen fails. * For the third and last specimen a 1.4 kg load is chosen. Again a different filename is selected in the data logger program. For this experiment ‘data3.txt’ was chosen for the third specimen. * The process is repeated for the last time until the specimen fails. * The results are then analysed as described below. Results Fig. 5 – Specimen 1 – Strain against Time with 1kg Fig. 6 – Specimen 2 – Strain against Time with 1.2kg Fig. 7 – Specimen 3 – Strain against Time with 1.4kg Fig. 8- Specimen 1 – Strain Rate against Time with 1kg Fig. 9 – Specimen 2 – Strain Rate against Time with 1.2kg Fig. 10 – Specimen 3 – Strain Rate against Time with 1.4kg Fig. 11 – Table of Values Calculated from Experimental Results Fig. 12 – Natural log of strain rate against natural of applied stress – 3 specimens (a) Estimationis made of the maximum applied stress that the material can withstand considering creep of less than 1% per year. Assuming 31,536,000 seconds in a year: The slope of the line in Fig. 12 gives the value for n. The exponential of the intercept of the line in Fig. 12 gives the value for A. Subbing for A and n and rearranging: (b) Estimation is made for the maximum applied stress considering a total time to failure of more than 10 years. Again an assumption of 31,536,000 seconds in a year is taken. For the strain at failure an average was taken from the data for specimens 1 and 2, giving 13.134. Subbing in for A and n and rearranging: Discussion From looking at the strain against time graphs, Fig. 5, 6, & 7, the different stages of creep can clearly be seen. In the primary stage the strain rate is relatively high and this can be seen visually by the steeper slope at this section on the graph. The slope in the primary stage then begins to decline indicating a decrease in the strain rate. This is despite the applied stress and temperature remaining constant. This can be explained by strain hardening occurring in the lead due to dislocations in the crystalline structure. Looking at these graphs it can be seen that their slopes reduce further to a minimum and for a time stay nearly constant. This is a visual indication of the secondary stage in the creep process where the strain rate becomes nearly constant. Here there is a recovery process in the lead due to thermal softening. The recovery balances the effect of the strain hardening causing the strain to reach its steady state. At the right hand side of the same graphs it can be seen that the slope increases. In Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 this is shown more clearly where the slope increases exponentially. This increase in slope after the steady state is a visual indication of the tertiary stage in creep. The increased strain rate, as visualised by the increasing slope, is caused by necking. The necking begins due to local variations in stress concentrations in the specimen due to microscopic differences, defects or impurities. After the necking the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases resulting in rapidly increasing stress concentrations. This increases the strain rate exponentially leading to fracture. In figures 8, 9 and 10 where the strain rate is graphed against time, the secondary creep stage can be seen more clearly. Here the steady state creep rate is visualised by a straight line with a value of y = 0. In the same graphs the secondary stage is bordered by two spikes in the strain rate. The left hand side has a smaller spike due to no work hardening having occurred and the specimens reacting to the applied load. The strain rate then decreases as discussed earlier. The right hand side shows a much larger spike due to the exponentially increasing strain rate caused by the necking. The stress component n is defined by the following equation: The stress component is then found by calculating the slope of against as seen in Fig.12. The material constant A can be found on the same graph by calculating the exponential of the intercept. Alternatively A can be found rearranging the power law equation: Fig. 14 – Theoretical values for A against the experimental value. In Fig. 14 it can be seen the values for A when using the power law equation compared against the value of found from Fig. 12. The differences are negligible and can be explained by errors as discussed below. The results of the experiment then confirms the steady state creep law. Errors If the masses are applied suddenly to the machine it will have a higher resulting stress on the specimen compared to a mass applied more gently. This is due to impact loading and will cause a higher deformation and creep in the specimen. The precision of the machine used in the experiment will have a result on the error. Also over time a machine needs to be calibrated. In this experiment it was not possible to calibrate the machine so this needed to be compensated in calculation later. Any vibrations on the machine or the LVDT will impact on the readings. This can occur through impact loading resulting in cyclical loading vibrations or it might be outside forces such as a table being moved. As discussed earlier, the creep rate is impacted by temperature. Changes in temperature due to draft or other influences could result in a change in the creep rate. No two lead specimens are exactly the same. There will be minor differences due to impurities in the metal or small defects such as notches caused by wear. Due to the manufacturing of the specimens there could be minor differences in their shape and area. All of these differences will have an impact on the results. Friction in the creep testing machine will resist the stresses caused by the â€Å"dead-weight† masses. Ideally this friction will be at a minimum, however some friction will always still remain and this will be a source of error. Most of this friction will be concentrated at the fulcrum of the lever arm on the creep testing machine. Electromagnetic interference in the electrical circuitry can impact on the recordings from the LVDT. Also any stray components in the system such as parasitic capacitances will also cause some interference. Rounding errors in the software or algorithm or later by the user will result in cumulative errors.

Action Research

The idea for my action research study came from observing a heated conversation in the teacher’s lounge. Several teachers complained about the new principal while others silently and cautiously agreed. More and more often the displeasure of her tactics with the teachers and other staff members was becoming more prominent and crystallized as the topic for a possible research. (See More on this page) I was not so sure, however, whether the new principal (let us call her Mrs. A.) was aware of her affect on people. Te topic entailed the small-scale active research format involving opinions and debates of willing participants. I knew I had to be careful not to create a situation of more of a social nature versus investigative and productive framework. I decided to call my action plan â€Å"An investigation into perceptions and opinions of successful practices in school management styles,† thus centering and going away from Mrs. A. becoming a target of negative attention. This was professional issue, and I knew that I needed some development in my knowledge within the subject, hence the need to be objective and to keep an open mind to extend the boundaries of my understanding in both directions. This was an opportunity to help both the school staff and the school administrator. The active part of the research came from the approach to actively involve all concerned (including Mrs. A.) and secure their cooperation by agreeing to answer a questionnaire (one in the beginning of the process and another at the end to raise the internal validity index) and the attitude survey. In addition, and before the questionnaire was distributed, I invited all participants to participate in an open but formal debate with the specific structure and time limits. To elicit honest perspectives and avoid the threat of bias (I was a teacher in that school), I recruited an independent industrial/organizational psychology student from the local university to conduct and supervise the debate. I knew that I needed to remove myself from any perception of power or control over the resulting data to guarantee the validity to the process. Thus, the psychology student with the help of his professor also performed all statistical analysis. Moreover, I felt that the questions on the questionnaire I designed initially were too biased toward my own opinions. I therefore, asked the same psychology student to redesign the questions for me. Once the questionnaire was ready, I took some extra time to personally meet with all participants and explain the purpose of the research. I was very careful not to give an impression that I had any private agenda in such matter. Designing the study as the technically oriented research I welcomed any duplication to increase reliability. Understanding my purpose in designing this action research plan, every participant was very cooperative. After the questionnaires were administered and collected, I realized that an independent observer might perceive a possibility to gender bias in judging responses of the questions: both the psychology student and myself were males while the rest of participants were females. Conducting this research as active helped me to develop two relevant professional purposes: the data resulting from interviews and from the questionnaire are context related as well as the subject to external and mutual influences. The second purpose is personal growth with the ability to generate new perspectives for all participants and non-participants alike. Sardo-Brown (1995) rose an interesting point about the practical benefits for practicing teachers conducting own research within their classrooms. This practice has the potential to influence the teacher’s work and to elevate the motivation and the desire to affect his or her students. The practitioner usually would begin with some questions defining the problem that is being present within the classroom life. Such problem is more relevant to the teacher who teaches that class than to the administrator(s). The solution of this problem relies on identifying the exact cause and finding a methodology to compensate for the negative affect. The teacher who becomes an active researcher has greater sense of responsibility and motivation since the resolved problem will improve visibly the quality of work being performed. Action research, then, is the tool carried out by the practitioner him or herself to address a practical problem and to influence practice affording greater responsibility. There is a sense of empowerment that becomes a source of increasing the teachers’ role in school-wide leadership and decision-making. To demonstrate the effectives of active research mode-type practices Sardo-Brown (1995) described the research processes of six classroom teachers; two of which taught at elementary level, two at the middle level, and two at the high school level. More recent account was presented my Merrill (2204) who directly posited a question, â€Å"When was the last time you sat back and contemplated how effective your teaching is?† Most certainly, this type of inquiry can be asked in any field of human endeavor, but the teaching is the most prominent since the quality of which is influenced by so many variables. This author had a particular interest in sustained technology education and hence was his interest in action research. To his credit, Merrill quoted a very descriptive dfinition of action research from the works of Stephen Corey (1953): A continual disciplined inquiry conducted to inform and improve our practice as educators. Action research asks educators to study their practice and its context, explore the research base for ideas, compare what they find to their current practice, participate in training to support needed changes, and study the effects on themselves, their students, and colleagues (Calhoun, 2002, p.18). This definition in its fullness describes the method and purposes behind such process. It names the research as an â€Å"inquiry† implying on the generally set and the most primal purpose behind any research. Then it directs our attention as its reflect-ability. Indeed, we need to study our own practice and its context, â€Å"explore the research base for ideas and compare (what was found) with (our) current practice†¦Ã¢â‚¬  But the main prerogative is to improve what we are doing even if its subjectively successful (Merrill, 2004). That main purpose was also supported by Zuber-Skerritt (1996) who provided the plan and concrete pathway to form new directions in action research. They were instrumental in that by first providing the readers in exact description and identification of different types of action research. They supported the practical definition of Calhoun by stating, â€Å"Action research is research into practice, by practitioners, for practitioners†¦Ã ¢â‚¬  Despite to such a practical view, this author’s book provided a good research foundation on how to do the action research and what exactly it is. Works Cited Armstrong, Felicity, and Michele Moore, eds. Action Research for Inclusive Education: Changing Places, Changing Practice, Changing Minds. New York: RoutledgeFalmer, 2004. Questia. 28 Apr. 2007 . Dadds, Marion. Passionate Enquiry and School Development: A Story about Teacher Action Research. London: Falmer Press, 1995. Questia. 28 Apr. 2007 . Merrill, Chris. â€Å"Action Research and Technology Education.† The Technology Teacher 63.8 (2004): 6+. Questia. 28 Apr. 2007 . Sardo-Brown, Deborah. â€Å"The Action Research Endeavors of Six Classroom Teachers and Their Perceptions of Action Research.† Education 116.2 (1995): 196+. Questia. 28 Apr. 2007 . Zuber-Skerritt, Ortrun, ed. New Directions in Action Research. London: Falmer Press, 1996. Questia. 28 Apr. 2007 .   

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English Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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The impact of culture differences on advertising Essay

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Daycare vs. Home for Children Essay Example for Free

Daycare vs. Home for Children Essay Introduction Nowadays parents are forced to put their children to daycare because both have to work to support family. While daycare are keeping children from infant to older age and for parents are much easier to put their children to day care, there is a great deal of issues about impact behavior. This is particular for children staying to day care long time. Therefore some parents compulsory put their children to daycare. This essay will argue strongly should having children at home. It looks of daycare children behavior and specifically of understanding a difference between children in daycare and children who take at home. Firstly, there is evidence to suggest that per_school children who stay at home get individual attention so it helps to development the strong bond between the children and their mothers. For example, for infant is good time to stay at home with their mothers and having feeding face to face. Quoted (Lees,2006) 70 percent of children that had weak bond with their mothers and 90 percent of children whose having behavior problem such as emotional problem, displayed out bursts or confident with others children, they had not been in a strong bond properly in first 24 months. Therefore, It is clear per_school children who stay at home get more attention that it helps to development their social _emotional in later. Another argument supporting the preschool children should not go to daycare is that children have a negative effect on behavior. Most the children who attend to daycare are from different family with different culture also education. They might be inappropriate play skills or behavior problems. As well the preschool children easily learn from each other’s whole behavior and skills during play times, for this reason have seen behavior problems in per_school children who attend in daycare such as lying, cheating, rudeness, defiance. According to (Lees, 2006) the children who demonstrate behavior problems and also is so tough for their parents to control their bad behavior, they have been attended in daycare 20 hours daycare or more per week. A third reason is spread epidemic daisies in daycare. The children in daycare have proven to get four times sick as children who stay at home. There are millions of bacteria in daycare to children get easily sick. Cold and flu are most common diseases which is easy to treatment while some diseases are difficult to treat. For example, ringworm and chicken pox both of them are so common in daycare and treat difficulty. In addition in the air condition dust is another problem, especially for allergy and asthma suffers. Therefore it is clear those children who stay at home protected of disease. However, there are some parents believe that per_school children who go to day care are better prepared for school. Some believe they learn discipline by sitting the mat being quiet, problem solving and how to shear. As well the children who attending to day care have ability to communicate well with other children. As cited in (VAIMOSO, 2012) â€Å" kids who have gone to preschool or kindergarten come prepared to listen, they socially interact. They recognize letters and numbers, which is big step†. Furthermore, attending to day care could be beneficial both for children and parents also is the big step for them to be successful person in society. In conclusion parents should not send their per_school children to day care. The reason being the children who attend daycare can develop negative behavior and are placed in a epidemic diseases as well it is better for them stay at home where they have individual attention. I suggest if can somehow be cut or eliminate unnecessary bills during this important stage of per_school children life, could be better having one parent stay at home with them per_school children. It is therefore clear that if per_school children stay at home it is both beneficial for children and parents.

Eulogy - Hamlet Essay Example for Free

Eulogy Hamlet Essay Old friend, the glimmer of light you shone upon us is gone, as we lay, cloaked in darkness now, devoid of your warmth. Your friends, your associates, your country, your passing has us confined to mourning, you left us far too soon. You are now free. Free of your burdens my friend. With your mother and father in heaven your sole will rest for all eternity, while hear on earth, storm clouds have gathered. Your presence is sorely missed. Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, was a man whose life touched many others. Perhaps the poet and Earl of Oxford, Edward De Vere, put it best when he said love, loyalty and kindness were the very essence of Hamlet. Love, loyalty and kindness. His friends and family, his beloved country, his people all who knew the man and experienced his aura had but the deepest respect for him. Hamlets loyalty and love of his country was evident in all that he did. His military prowess and fluency with the sword always astonished me and his beautiful style amazed all those who had the opportunity to see him dual. His final dual against the late Laertes, perhaps best portrayed Hamlets elegant swordsmanship, a victory without losing a single point. A cheap shot from behind was the only way to bring Hamlet down it would seem. Hamlets wonderful ability to dual reflected his patriotism, as he mastered the art should he one day need to fight for his country. Perhaps the best indication of Hamlets love of his country shone bright at one of the darkest points of his life. When Hamlet learned of his fathers death he was overcome by grief, even more so when he first learned that he was murdered by the late King Claudius. Despite this, Hamlet overcame his emotion and intense desire for revenge , waiting until evidence of the murder could be procured. Despite such tragic circumstances, Hamlet delayed plans for revenge in order to avoid any further disruptions to the natural order, as such disruptions would bear down upon his country. Now that we have lost him, Denmark will have to endure times of unrest. His love of his country was only matched by his love of his family and friends. When Hamlets father passed away his love was such, that he spent weeks in inconsolable mourning. His love was such, that he could forgive his mother, the late Queen Gertrude, despite the incredible tension between them  and his belief that she had betrayed his father. His love was such, that his greatest regret was not revealing it to his darling, the late Ophelia, whom he adored with all his heart. I had the honour of experiencing his love as his friend for many years. During our time at school in Wittenburg, Hamlets companionship made it one of the most enjoyable periods of my life. It was during periods of great turmoil and anguish, however, when I was able to be there for Hamlet, that he truly showed his love for me as a brother. This kindness that Hamlet constantly showered on me was not just my unique privilege, but that of all people who met him. He had a definite interest in people and believed that all people were good people. This was why he had such difficulty in believing that his uncle Claudius could have murdered his father. His deep attraction to Ophelia, who was a symbol of beauty and innocence, showed his love of that which was good in the world. His readiness and want, to mix with all people, no matter whether they were nobles, players or commoners, he enjoyed the company of them all. Love, loyalty and kindness. Hamlet, you will forever remain in our hearts. We shall never forget you. You are free now prince. You are free.